In this work twelve hybrids from Monastrell, harvested at different, moments, were characterized from the point of view of their anthocyanin content in order to select “new varieties” able to adapt to new climatological conditions. The results showed how all the hybrids analyzed and their corresponding wines provided a higher total anthocyanin content during the two seasons studied. Their profile was also modified, increasing the percentage of acetylated anthocyanin content and decreasing the percentage of dihydroxylated monoglucoside anthocyanins both in grapes and wines.
Keywords: Anthocyanin; hybrids; Monastrell; climate change; wine, grapes;
Practical application: These results will have a big socio-economic impact, helping to boost the profitability of the crop and increase the yield and quality of both grape and the wines, by providing new varieties that are better adapted to the edaphoclimatic conditions of the area studied.
Some short term strategies may include the use of different crop management practices such as different irrigation systems, sunscreens for leaf protection, etc. On the other hand, some long term measures should also be considered such as varietal selection (one alternative could be the use of breeding programs) and land allocation changes [5]. Finally, changes in enological practices may represent another tool to obtain positive effects on wine quality [6].
Color is one of the most important attributes in red wines, and the principal sources of the red color in wines are the anthocyanins or their derivatives that are extracted or formed during the vinification process [7]( Busse-Valverde et al., 2011). The concentration and composition of anthocyanins is affected by environmental factors such as temperature, exposure to light, and water availability [8]. An upward shift in seasonal temperature will dramatically shift the growing season, thereby changing the normal pattern of grape development toward an earlier onset of flowering, veraison and harvest (Keller, 2010). It is known that low temperatures (14/9 ºC day/night) are not conducive to high anthocyanin concentrations [9], and temperatures in excess of 30 ºC also lead to lower anthocyanin synthesis [8, 10, 11]. Therefore, in warm climates, grape berry temperature may frequently reach levels that inhibit the formation of anthocyanins and hence reduce grape color [12]. Besides absolute anthocyanin levels, compositional changes have also been described, with warm seasons associated with the increased formation of malvidin, petunidin, and delphinidin coumaroyl derivatives. However,[8] found that delphinidin, cyanidin, petunidin and peonidin- based anthocyanins decreased in sun-exposed Merlot berries, and while malvidin derivatives remained unaffected.
Other effects of climatic change on grape chemistry include increased pH values due to lower acid concentrations (especially malic acid), and lower anthocyanin and methoxypyrazine levels. This can favor oxidative reactions (Boulton et al.) and may affect to the formation of the colorless hemiketal anthocyanin form, reducing wine color in young red wines [13].
The proportion and amount of each anthocyanidin is influenced greatly by cultivar type and viticultural conditions. Although concentrations vary widely, it is commonly accepted that the anthocyanin profile of a given cultivar is closely linked to its genetic inheritance. Although environmental factors may have some influence [14, 15] this profile, or the relationship between some of the different anthocyanins, could be used to classify varieties. This obviously influences both the hue and the color stability, which are directly affected by the hydroxylation and methylation pattern of the B ring of the anthocyanidins. Blueness is enhanced by increases in free hydroxyl groups, whereas redness intensifies with increasing methylation of these hydroxyl groups as indicated by peak wavelengths. Malvidin is also the reddest individual anthocyanidin (Bistch et al., 2004), while cyanidin, delphinidin and petunidin, which contain an o-diphenol structure on the B ring are more sensitive to oxidation. By contrast, neither malvidin nor peonidin possesses ortho-positioned hydroxyl groups, which explains their comparatively high resistance to oxidation [16].
Monastrell is a very late variety as regard both bud-breaking and ripening season, and is well adapted to the agro-ecological conditions of southeastern Spain. However although it has a high phenolic composition, its thick skin hinders extraction during winemaking [17]. While innovation in agriculture in general is commonly based on the development of new varieties, in wine grape viticulture, innovation has tended to be based on improvements in agronomic techniques or on the development of new enological technologies. This lack of genetic breeding programs [18] is mainly due to the fact that only a reduced number of clones of a few varieties are authorized by the different Origin Appellations. However, for all the reasons mentioned above it is necessary to obtain new varieties by means of intraspecific crosses, using Monastrell as the parental, although any new varieties must show a good adaptation to local agroecological and climatic conditions in order to have a high anthocyanin content with a high degree of extractability.
Finally, the main interest in of these compounds and their derivatives in grapes and wines are related with their potential beneficial effects on human health, although some researchers have cast doubts on their bioavailability. Such benefits include free radical scavenging and antioxidant activity, antimicrobial and antiviral activity, the prevention of cardiovascular disease, a protective effect against hepatic damage and disease, and anticancer and antimutagenic activities [19, 20, 21]. Therefore, if hybrids with high levels of these compounds can be obtained, especially if their bioactive compound content is superior to that of traditional varieties, they will be considered to show a high potential for providing human health benefits.
For the reasons mentioned above, the objectives of the present study were to investigate the parental effect on the content and profile of anthocyanins in various progenies and to estimate the heritability of anthocyanins in twelve hybrids. The potential influence of harvesting time was also investigated in two successive years in order to check the possible adaptation of these new vegetal materials to the impact of climate change.
Plantation Year |
Harvest Total anthocyanins (mg/L) |
º Brix |
Total acidity* |
Berry Size (g) |
||||
% Acylated | % Non-Acylated | % Di-OH | % Tri-OH | |||||
2015 |
2016 |
2015 |
2016 |
2015 |
2016 |
|||
MSy38 |
2010 |
Mid-August |
23.4 |
24.9 |
3.4 |
4.1 |
1.05 |
0.84 |
MSy10 |
2012 |
Mid-August |
24.7 |
25.8 |
4.5 |
4.5 |
1.35 |
0.94 |
MSy12 |
2010 |
End of August |
24.4 |
22.3 |
3.0 |
3.2 |
1.22 |
1.08 |
MCS18 |
2014 |
End of August |
24.7 |
24.0 |
3.7 |
4.1 |
1.25 |
0.96 |
MCS16 |
2010 |
Beginning September |
26 |
25.4 |
4.5 |
5.2 |
0.96 |
0.87 |
MSy104 |
2010 |
Beginning September |
22.2 |
24.5 |
3.0 |
3.6 |
1.32 |
1.20 |
MCS111 |
2012 |
Beginning September |
24.4 |
26.2 |
5.0 |
4.7 |
0.88 |
0.73 |
MCS79 |
2014 |
Beginning September |
22.1 |
24.8 |
4.8 |
4.9 |
0.97 |
0.87 |
MCS59 |
2010 |
End of September |
23.6 |
26.3 |
3.5 |
4.3 |
1.22 |
0.92 |
MCS80 |
2010 |
End of September |
25.2 |
24.5 |
3.1 |
3.3 |
1.14 |
1.07 |
MCS85 |
2012 |
End of September |
23.2 |
23.8 |
3.6 |
4.5 |
1.30 |
1.06 |
MCS98 |
2012 |
End of September |
24.6 |
25.8 |
4.5 |
4.1 |
1.39 |
1.27 |
Monastrell |
2003 |
End of September |
25.8 |
24.5 |
3.3 |
3.0 |
1.68 |
1.49 |
By contrast, In the case of dihydroxylated anthocyanins, the results differed, and higher values of cyanidin-3-glucoside were obtained in Monastrell in both seasons analyzed, except in the case of MCS16 and MSy10, which showed high levels in 2015. Monastrell grapes are also characterized by a relatively large concentration of dihydroxylated anthocyanins, as demonstrated in other studies [23, 24]. As regards peonidin-3-glucoside, the results differed between vintages, although in general the concentration was higher in Monastrell grapes. In some hybrids the concentrations were higher - for example in MSy10 in 2015 or MCS16 in 2016. The high levels of these compounds in Monastrell and the hybrid grapes mentioned were due to the lower activity of the enzymes that control the formation of trihydroxylated anthocyanins in this variety [17].
In Vitis vinifera the presence of acylated anthocyanins (acetyl, coumaryl and to a lesser extended, caffeoyl) is to be expected. The profile of Monastrell is characterized by a comparatively high quantity of monoglucosides but a comparatively low presence of acylated anthocyanins, as was observed by García-Beneytez et al. (2002), and by Romero-Cascales et al. 2005) in Monastrell grapes from two different localizations (Bullas and Jumilla). Some other grape species, such as Muscadine grapes (V. rotunidfolia) do not accumulate acylated anthocyanins [25].The interest in obtaining hybrids which higher levels of acylated compounds is due to the fact that these compounds are very important for wine color since they participate in intramolecular copigmentation processes [26].
With respect to acetylated anthocyanins, delphinidin, petunidin, and malvidin-3-acetylglucoside levels were also higher than in Monastrell for both seasons studied. As occurred for monoglucosides, a general increase in all acetylated anthcoyanins was obtained in hybrid grapes except for cyandin- 3-acetylglucoside, whose values were lower in MSy104 than in Monastrell in 2015 and in MCS59, MCS85 and MCS98 in 2016. Also, values similar to those of Monastrell were observed for petunidin-3-acetylmonoglucoside in MCS59 and MCS85 in 2015. In a comparison of different varieties, Romero-Cascales et al. (2005) found that Monastrell grapes from two different locations (Jumilla and Bullas) had the lowest proportion of acylated anthocyanins, as also was observed by [27] but in Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah grapes had the highest percentages of acylated anthocyanins. With regard to coumarate anthocyanins, the results were variable for most of the compounds analyzed, although the highest concentration was obtained for malvidin- 3-coumarylglucoside in both seasons. During 2015 the highest values were obtained in MSy10 and during 2016 in MSy104.
The anthocyanin percentages found in Monastrell grape and its hybrids are illustrated in (Figure 1). As can be observed the differences between Monastrell and the hybrid grapes mainly concerned the accumulation of acylated and dihydroxylated anthocyanins. The boxes represented in Figure 1 enclose the middle 50% of the data where the median is drawn as a vertical line inside the box. The results showed that the profile of Monastrell hybrids was modified compared with its parental. The percentage of acylated anthocyanins was higher in the hybrids (36%) than in the parental (22%). With regards to the non-acylated anthocyanins, the levels were lower in the hybrids (64%) and in the dihydroxylated anthocyanins (5.7%) compared with the levels obtained in Monastrell grapes (78% for nonacylated and 22% for dihydroxylated anthocyanins). Finally, the percentage of trihydroxylated was also higher in the hybrids (58.2%) than in Monastrell (55.7%) grapes.
Abbreviations: Acy: Acylated anthocyanins; DiOH: Di-hydroxylated anthocyanins; NonAcy: Non-acylated anthocyanins; TriOH: Tri-hydroxylated anthocyanins: Mo: Monastrell.
The anthocyanin composition of wines made from Monastrell and hybrids
The concentration of individual anthocyanins in the studied wines is shown in (Table 3). The typical concentrations of free anthocyanins in full-bodied young red wines is around 500 mg/L, but may in some cases be higher than 2,000 mg/L [28]. In our case, total anthocyanins in Monastrell wines reached 392.8 mg/L in 2015 and 689.9 mg/L in 2016. For the rest of the wines elaborated with the corresponding hybrids, the values were ranged from 799.5 to 2206.4 mg/L during 2015 and from 1636.3 to 2210.2 mg/L in 2016. Malvidin derivatives were the predominant anthocyanin in all wines, a situation common in several red wines, in which it forms the basis of their color. The total anthocyanin contents of the wines produced in each year were very different. Control wines produced in 2016 had significantly higher anthocyanin content than those produced in 2015, because the productivity was much lower in 2016 than 2015 due to climatological factors (data not shown; during 2016 the mean temperature was higher and rainfall was less than in 2015). The findings can also be explained by the smaller size of the berries in 2016, which facilitates the extraction of anthocyanins [29] (Table 1).
With regards to individual compositions, (Table 2) points to high trihydroxylated anthocyanin concentrations in the hybrids for both seasons, except cyanidin-3-glucoside whose values were similar in wines from MSy104, MCS98 and Monastrell grapes. The levels were also higher during 2016 than 2015. During the first season MSy10 provided the highest values, as occurred in the grapes, and during the second season the hybrid MCS111 reached higher values for all monoglucosides, except malvidin-3- glucoside, for which MSy10 found the highest values.
Abbreviations: Dp: Delphinidin; Cy: Cyanidin; Pt: Petunidin; Pn: Peonidin; Mv: Malvidin; Gl: Glucoside; Ac acetyl glucoside; Cm: coumaryl glucosides; Cfglc: caffeate glucoside.
aDifferent letters within the same column indicate significant differences according to Duncan’s test (p > 0.05).
Dp-3Gl |
Cy-3Gl |
Pt-3Gl |
Pn-3Gl |
Mv3Gl |
DpAc |
CyAc |
PtAc |
PnAc |
MvAc |
MvCum Cis |
DpCum |
Mv3cf |
CyCum |
PetCum |
PnCum |
MvCumTrans |
Total |
|
GRAPE 2015 |
||||||||||||||||||
Monastrella |
32.2 a |
41.2 e |
52.6 a |
62.1 . |
205.5 a |
1.5 a |
2.2 ab |
3.4 a |
3.6 a |
18.6 a |
3.7 a |
5.3 a |
6.3 abc |
6.3 c |
12.7 a |
13.4 abc |
71.0 a |
543.4 a |
MCS16 |
244.2 ef |
70.0 g |
244.9 e |
146.6 e |
621.2 bcd |
42.2 ef |
12.2 i |
56.2 f |
29.2 f |
168.4 b |
3.7 a |
18.3 de |
3.6 a |
10.8 e |
30.3 b |
31.3 e |
130.3 b |
1869.7 bc |
MC59 |
125.9 cd |
18.0 abc |
121.5 bc |
92.6 d |
709.9 cde |
19.1 bc |
2.7 abc |
25.3 bc |
16.6 cd |
237.4 cd |
6.0 cd |
6.7 ab |
4.4 abc |
2.8 a |
13.1 a |
19.4 cd |
148.6 bc |
1572.1 b |
MCS80 |
184.0 d |
17.0 abc |
119.4 bc |
66.2bc |
756.1 de |
34.0 de |
3.2 bcd |
35.2 cd |
15.4 cd |
298.3 e |
6.5 cde |
14.0 cd |
7.9 cd |
5.2 bc |
17.9 a |
14.2 abc |
187.6 c |
1786.6 bc |
MSy104 |
83.4 bc |
8.5 a |
94.5 b |
74.3 cd |
645.2 bcd |
13.0 b |
1.6 a |
22.6 b |
19.4 de |
254.4 de |
8.7 f |
23.2 ef |
5.0 abc |
5.6 c |
41.9 cd |
48.6 g |
395.7 e |
1756.8 bc |
MSy38 |
85.3 b |
25.0 cd |
117.6 bc |
136.3 e |
537.9 b |
17.2 b |
4.0 cd |
31.0 bcd |
23.3 e |
178.7 bc |
9.1 f |
24.8 f |
13.4 ef |
10.2 de |
46.6 d |
39.6 d |
273.8 d |
1582.1 b |
MCS111 |
233.1 e |
21.6 bcd |
147.7 cd |
32.5 a |
656.4 bcde |
43.3 f |
5.7 ef |
42.4 e |
10.3 b |
266.8 de |
3.4 a |
7.5 ab |
4.2 ab |
2.7 a |
11.4 a |
7.7 a |
130.1 b |
1615.5 b |
MCS85 |
224.9 e |
20.8 de |
158.4 d |
33.5 a |
697.4 cde |
45.6 f |
6.1 f |
42.3 e |
11.0 b |
278.8 de |
3.8 ab |
7.9 ab |
4.5 abc |
2.7 a |
12.0 a |
8.2 a |
136.5 b |
1697.1 bc |
MCS98 |
283.9 f |
31.3 de |
213.6 e |
69.4 bcd |
750.2 de |
59.2 g |
8.0 g |
63.4 f |
21.2 e |
261.0 de |
5.9 c |
28.0 f |
7.4 bcd |
8.7 d |
35.2 bc |
18.3 bcd |
194.4 c |
2068.6 c |
MSy10 |
282.3 f |
55.9 f |
333.4 f |
180.5 f |
1039.1 f |
58.7 g |
10.0 h |
88.6 g |
37.8 g |
360.0 f |
11.2 g |
41.8 g |
14.3 f |
16.7 f |
74.6 e |
47.8 g |
379.9 e |
3046.7 d |
MSy12 |
91.1 bc |
23.6 cd |
123.4 bc |
139.0 e |
567.3 bc |
18.9 bc |
4.2 de |
31.7 bcd |
23.1 e |
178.5 bc |
8.2 ef |
26.6 f |
14.8 f |
10.3 de |
48.7 d |
40.2 f |
288.1 d |
1646.5 b |
MCS18 |
157.0cd |
14.9 abc |
104.4 b |
49.4 abc |
581.4 bc |
30.1 d |
3.8 cd |
33.9 cde |
16.5 cd |
288.2 de |
5.8 bc |
10.8 bc |
6.5 abc |
3.9 ab |
15.0 a |
11.6 ab |
144.8 bc |
1481.7 b |
MCS79 |
147.1cd |
14.8 abc |
169.9 d |
45.2 ab |
804.4 e |
26.0 cd |
3.9 cd |
38.5 e |
13.7 bc |
248.7 de |
7.9 def |
17.6 d |
10.4 de |
6.2 c |
32.9 b |
21.4 d |
251.5 d |
1866.1 bc |
GRAPE 2016 |
||||||||||||||||||
Monastrell |
108.1 b |
125.9 e |
124.8 bc |
153.5 hi |
422.1 b |
3.2 a |
3.1 ab |
5.3 a |
4.8 a |
22.4 a |
2.6 dfg |
2.6 f |
2.6 a |
14.0 def |
19.2 abc |
18.7 bc |
86.3 ab |
1127.4 abc |
MCS16 |
433.7 e |
85.5 d |
415.0 f |
179.5 i |
1143.3 d |
63.2 g |
10.5 f |
88.1 gh |
34.0 f |
306.3 d |
2.3 cde |
2.5 bc |
47.3 d |
16.9 fg |
47.9 fg |
32.5 ef |
208.2 c |
3117.7 f |
MC59 |
25.9 a |
8.2 a |
22.3 a |
18.8 a |
77.6 a |
12.7 ab |
3.1 ab |
18.3 ab |
5.5 a |
101.6 b |
2.1 bcd |
3.5 de |
5.4 a |
22.5 i |
36.1 de |
29.3 de |
135.6 ab |
641.2 a |
MCS80 |
318.5 d |
32.2 bc |
184.2 cd |
106.5 ef |
1018.0 cd |
50.0 f |
4.8 bcd |
40.3 d |
24.9 de |
420.2 e |
2.8 efg |
2.2 bc |
24.4 c |
8.9 b |
25.4 bcd |
24.6 cd |
219.3 c |
2519.1 e |
MSy104 |
292.6 d |
21.2 e |
274.4 e |
134.2 fgh |
150.6 e |
51.9 fg |
5.3 cd |
61.3 f |
31.5 f |
516.8 f |
4.1 h |
4.5 e |
94.7 g |
18.5 gh |
87.7 i |
62.4 h |
366.1 e |
3802.7 g |
MSy38P52 |
149.8 bc |
20.4 d |
198.6 d |
109.9 efg |
922.9 cd |
22.9 bcd |
4.1 abcd |
43.6 de |
22.0 cd |
267.8 d |
3.2 fg |
4.1 e |
63.1 e |
14.3 e |
64.5 h |
40.3 g |
634.4 g |
2319.0 e |
MCS111 |
579.5 f |
70.9 f |
398.5 f |
152.7 hi |
1059.9 cd |
81.5 h |
8.2 e |
78.0 g |
26.3 e |
298.8 d |
1.7 abc |
1.6 ab |
82.8 f |
20.4 hi |
73.1 h |
38.7 fg |
289.8 d |
3275.6 fg |
MCS85 |
139.9 bc |
16.7 b |
86.6 b |
20.4 a |
378.7 a |
19.9 bc |
2.7 a |
20.5 bc |
5.0 a |
210.4 c |
1.4 a |
1.1 a |
9.7 ab |
3.3 a |
7.9 a |
5.4 a |
78.5 a |
952.8 ab |
MCS98 |
169.5 bc |
12.4 a |
128.0 bc |
32.2 ab |
467.5 b |
29.3 cde |
3.2 ab |
30.9 bcd |
6.6 cd |
181.1 c |
1.5 ab |
0.9 a |
28.0 c |
5.8 a |
25.8 bc |
11.8 ab |
146.7 b |
1271.6 bc |
MSy10 |
367.6 de |
36.3 c |
416.2 f |
94.9 de |
1360.3 e |
59.2 fg |
5.5 d |
99.9 h |
20.7 cd |
429.9 e |
3.4 g |
2.3 bc |
77.4 f |
15.6 ef |
87.6 i |
32.5 ef |
427.6 f |
3538.0 fg |
MSy38`2 |
200.3 c |
34.9 bc |
237.8 de |
140.0 fgh |
930.7 cd |
33.0 de |
4.1 abcd |
56.3 ef |
24.8 de |
281.3 d |
3.3 fg |
4.1 e |
55.3 de |
14.4 ef |
53.2 g |
39.0 fg |
283.5 d |
2397.5 e |
MCS18 |
209.1 c |
25.8 abc |
122.2 bc |
66.3 cd |
583.7 b |
36.1 e |
3.4 abc |
34.7 cd |
19.5 c |
296.1 d |
1.4 a |
1.1 a |
19.8 bc |
5.2 a |
14.5 ab |
12.9 b |
138.9 b |
1591.0 cd |
MCS79 |
179.5 bc |
20.3 abc |
204.9 d |
54.7 bc |
900.7 c |
22.2 bcd |
4.6 abcd |
38.9 d |
13.3 b |
272.9 d |
3.2 fg |
2.9 cd |
43.6 d |
11.4 bc |
39.2 ef |
22.8 cd |
252.3 cd |
2088.3 de |
aDifferent letters within the same column indicate significant differences according to Duncan’s test (p > 0.05).
Dp-3Gl |
Cy-3Gl |
Pt-3Gl |
Pn-3Gl |
Mv3Gl |
DpAc |
CyAc |
PtAc |
PnAc |
MvAc/Dfcum |
Peocf |
Cycf/Cum |
Mv3CumCis |
PetCum |
PnCum |
MvCumTrans |
Total |
|
WINE 2015 |
|||||||||||||||||
Monastrell |
15.4 a |
8.6 b |
36.4 a |
30.1 c |
203.9 a |
2.6 a |
2.0 a |
1.5 a |
7.4 a |
16.9 a |
4.9 b |
8.6 bc |
2.9 ab |
2.1 bc |
6.8 bc |
37.0 d |
392.8 a |
MCS16 |
60.0 f |
19.4 f |
90.8 h |
49.9 e |
293.1 c |
51.9 i |
28.9 c |
14.2 b |
25.9 b |
71.2 b |
9.0 e |
10.6 cd |
5.4 c |
7.2 d |
6.7 b |
22.0 a |
807.6 c |
MC59 |
64.1 g |
15.9 e |
81.1 f |
53.9 f |
510.3 h |
43.9 g |
12.1 b |
27.4 c |
31.0 d |
152.5 e |
11.8 f |
11.9 de |
8.3 de |
8.5 d |
10.2 d |
53.0 f |
1150. e |
MCS80 |
79.0 h |
16.5 e |
68.9 e |
45.0 d |
502.0 h |
51.8 i |
18.5 b |
31.9 d |
44.6 f |
177.1 g |
13.7 g |
12.8 de |
11.5 f |
13.0 e |
9.4 cd |
67.5 g |
1243.5 g |
MSy104 |
34.7 b |
8.2 b |
54.1 c |
44.5 d |
421.5 f |
36.3 f |
11.6 b |
24.5 c |
36.7 e |
152.6 e |
16.2 h |
18.5 f |
9.9 ef |
7.4 d |
16.2 f |
67.2 g |
1010.7 d |
MSy38 |
54.3 e |
12.2 cd |
90.0 h |
88.9 h |
572.7 i |
12.8 b |
25.7 c |
1.1 a |
34.0 de |
165.7 f |
7.3 d |
14.5 e |
3.1 ab |
0.1 a |
20.6 g |
77.1 h |
1185. 3 f |
MCS111 |
186.2 i |
21.3 g |
66.8 g |
66.8 g |
370.7 e |
54.4 j |
18.4 b |
26.5 c |
35.8 e |
84.9 c |
11.4 f |
10.3 bc |
7.5 d |
12.4 e |
9.9 d |
33.0 c |
999.2 d |
MCS85 |
90.0 j |
19.3 f |
30.9 c |
30.9 c |
475.7 g |
55.6 j |
13.4 b |
34.6 d |
35.4 de |
146.7 d |
12.5 f |
11.7 d |
11.4 f |
13.8 e |
8.3 bcd |
47.6 e |
1180.7 ef |
MCS98 |
48.6 c |
5.1 a |
12.9 a |
12.9 a |
224.4 b |
23.3 c |
17.1 b |
31.1 a |
14.2 b |
71.2 b |
1.4 a |
1.1 a |
1.0 a |
3.3 c |
3.3 a |
26.6 b |
516.8 b |
MSy10 |
166.2 e |
19.2 h |
124.8 k |
124.8 k |
907.3 k |
46.6 h |
66.5 d |
2.0 a |
62.7 g |
322.1 i |
12.3 f |
30.4 g |
3.7 bc |
1.3 ab |
31.2 h |
165.5 j |
2206.4 i |
MSy12 |
52.1 d |
12.9 d |
95.5 i |
95.5 i |
558.4 i |
13.0 b |
25.6 c |
1.1 a |
35.3 de |
161.6 f |
4.0 b |
12.8 de |
2.0 ab |
0.4 a |
21.4 g |
69.5 g |
1160.9 ef |
MCS18 |
113.4 k |
12.3 cd |
44.6 d |
44.6 d |
611.9 j |
31.5 e |
29.1 c |
5.5 a |
34.4 de |
285.9 h |
6.1 c |
7.9 b |
4.0 bc |
2.2 bc |
13.6 e |
89.6 i |
1397.9 h |
MCS79 |
32.9 b |
11.1 c |
19.8 b |
19.8 b |
343.0 d |
26.8 d |
15.6 b |
23.6 c |
25.9 c |
89.4 c |
12.0 f |
10.7 cd |
9.4 def |
13.5 e |
8.1 bcd |
38.6 d |
799.5 c |
WINE 2016 |
|||||||||||||||||
Monastrell |
41.3 a |
16.8 a |
76.5 a |
42.4 a |
346.2 a |
3.4 a |
9.0 a |
11.1 a |
8.6 a |
27.4 a |
8.0 a |
5.1 a |
12.5 d |
7.9 abcd |
7.9 ab |
51.0 a |
689.9 a |
MCS16 |
152.7 e |
42.2 g |
184.0 f |
95.0 h |
591.0 b |
65.6 f |
24.8 cd |
58.7 d |
53.4 c |
169.4 b |
13.2 bc |
24.3 f |
7.9 a |
6.2 bcde |
15.0 bcd |
73.8 b |
1636.3 b |
MC59 |
182.7 g |
46.7 i |
179.2 f |
121.0 j |
669.5 d |
60.2 d |
25.7 cd |
49.1 b |
53.3 c |
248.7 d |
15.4 cd |
21.1 e |
10.0 abcd |
4.9 abac |
17.6 cde |
98.1 cd |
1851.8de |
MCS80 |
154.5 e |
28.8 e |
124.1 b |
76.9 e |
699.9 e |
62.8 e |
26.6 cd |
48.8 b |
64.2 e |
271.8 efg |
16.8 b |
20.6 e |
11.1 bcd |
8.6 de |
18.4 cde |
101.3 d |
1803.6 cd |
MSy104 |
112.5 c |
22.4 c |
147.5 c |
88.6 g |
879.9 i |
66.1 f |
27.6 d |
64.8 e |
69.2 f |
294.3 g |
29.1 g |
33.4 h |
8.1 a |
1.8 a |
26.1 e |
113.9 e |
2051.7 g |
MSy38P52 |
106.2 b |
19.4 b |
164.7 e |
81.0 f |
748.4 g |
4.6 a |
24.9 cd |
59.3 c |
59.2 d |
255.7 de |
17.6 d |
13.3 c |
26.6 e |
8.3 cde |
12.3 bc |
90.6 cd |
1712.0 bc |
MCS111 |
229.0 i |
44.5 h |
217.6 h |
103.0 i |
709.5 e |
91.7 i |
27.4 d |
73.1 f |
80.6 g |
216.9 c |
25.0 f |
39.5 i |
11.3 cd |
9.4 e |
21.1 cde |
117.0 ef |
2088.5 g |
MCS85 |
220.1 h |
33.9 f |
180.2 f |
48.8 b |
789.6 h |
71.2 g |
24.0 cd |
61.6 de |
6.6 a |
319.1 h |
17.9 d |
18.5 de |
8.4 ab |
8.1 cde |
2.5 a |
131.6 g |
1931.1 ef |
MCS98 |
179.5 g |
28.6 e |
178.3 f |
49.9 b |
728.2 f |
80.9 h |
36.5 e |
82.8 g |
66.2 ef |
284.3 fg |
15.8 d |
9.4 b |
9.2 abc |
34.0 f |
3.1 a |
149.7 h |
1982.6 fg |
MSy10 |
168.5 g |
21.1 bc |
251.5 i |
69.6 d |
953.5 k |
7.6 b |
18.3 b |
87.7 h |
28.8 b |
338.5 d |
23.3 ef |
12.9 c |
33.6 f |
8.0 cde |
12.3 bc |
101.4 d |
2210.2 h |
MSy38`2 |
101.4 b |
24.7 d |
155.4 d |
94.1 h |
729.5 f |
48.0 c |
15.8 b |
52.3 bc |
28.9 b |
201.44 c |
11.3 b |
30.3 g |
7.6 a |
4.5 ab |
22.9 de |
87.1 c |
1692.7 bc |
MCS18 |
173.9 f |
28.1 e |
128.1 b |
71.1 d |
635.2 c |
65.9 f |
23.1 c |
50.1 b |
56.5 cd |
286.6 fg |
11.3 b |
16.4 d |
8.6 ab |
7.7 bcde |
14.7 bcd |
94.4 cd |
1729.7 bc |
MCS79 |
133.7 d |
26.0 d |
198.4 g |
59.2 c |
907.8 j |
52.8 c |
17. 4 b |
54.0 c |
60.0 d |
265.1 def |
22.3 e |
31.0 gh |
9.8 abcd |
5.9 bcd |
14.5 bcd |
125.8 fg |
2038.1 fg |
aDifferent letters within the same column indicate significant differences according to Duncan’s test (p > 0.05).
Although in our study hybrid wines were very pigmented, it is not always the case that highly colored grapes necessarily produce highly colored wines, which may be related to the ease with which anthocyanins are extracted from grape skins into musts (Romero- Cascales et al., 2005). It has been stated that the anthocyanin fingerprint only partially reflects the anthocyanin fingerprint of fresh grapes (García-Beneytez et al., 2002), the wines usually containing a higher proportion of malvidin-3-glucoside than grapes. However, the monoglucoside composition alone may not permit any clear conclusions on a wine’s chromatic characteristics, as some anthocyanins could have been extracted from the skins and been polymerized, thus contributing to wine color (Romero- Cascales et al., 2005). The extraction of anthocyanins from the grape into the wine is essentially a diffusion process, and the rate and extent of extraction is influenced by the grape anthocyanin concentration, the composition of berry cell-walls and processing methods. The structural properties of the cell walls of the different varieties may determine the mechanical resistance, the texture and the ease of processing berries (Barnavon et al., 2000). In the case of Monastrell, is known that their cell walls are genetically characterized by a more rigid structure, which would hinder anthocyanin extraction. In the case of the hybrids, some of them would have inherited these properties because although the wines obtained were highly pigmented, the concentration of anthocyanins in the grape was much higher, which means that the process of extraction was diminished. Apolinar-Valiente et al., (2017) studied the cell wall of some hybrids from Monastrell x Cabernet Sauvignon and noted that they have different carbohydrate and total sugar compositions which might affect the extraction process of anthocyanin compounds during winemaking.
The anthocyanin percentages found in Monastrell and their hybrids are shown in (Figure 2). The percentages obtained for hybrids and Monastrell wines were very similar to those obtained in grapes, except in two ways. In the first place, the percentage of dihydroxylated anthocyanins in Monastrell wines was still higher than that obtained by the hybrids, but the difference between them were less pronounced compared to the values found in grapes. In second place, the percentage of trihydroxylated anthocyanins was greater in Monastrell wines than in the wines from the hybrids. This may have been due to intramolecular or intermolecular interactions of anthocyanins with themselves or with other organic chemicals, especially phenolic compounds, such as selfassociation and copigmentation, can further enhance their color expression (Gonzalez-Manzano et al., 2008) or to the formation of pyranoanthocyanis, such as vitisin A (malvidin-3-glucoside+ pyruvic acid) or vitisin B (malvidin-3-glucoside+acetaldehyde) during alcoholic fermentation.
Abbreviations: Acy: Acylated anthocyanins; DiOH: Di-hydroxylated anthocyanins; NonAcy: Non-acylated anthocyanins; TriOH: Tri-hydroxylated anthocyanins: Mo: Monastrell.
To study separately the effects of harvest time and season, a MANOVA was applied. As can be observed in (Table 4), if a multivariable statistical analysis is made, no significant differences can be found between any of the percentages of the different anthocyanin types with respect to the harvest time and with respect to the season. Although harvest time was a source of variation in the total anthocyanin content, this difference was only observed between the results obtained for mid-August and the results obtained at the end of September. But these differences could be attributed to the fact that the concentration of anthocyanins may decrease slightly just before harvest [32] and/or during over-ripening, although climatological factors can also influence the results obtained.
Therefore, the challenge is to find well adapted hybrids (with good productivity and long ripening period) with high quality grapes (small berry size, a not excessively low acid content and a high anthocyanin content) (Gómez-Plaza et al., 2008). Our hybrids were all characterized for having a smaller berry size, the same or a higher acidity and a much higher anthocyanin concentration both in grapes and wines than in the corresponding Monastrell grapes and wines. In addition, their anthocyanin profile was much improved, so the acylated and trihydroxylated anthocyanin percentage were superior to that of Monastrell. This suggests that the hybrids obtained by means of intraspecific crosses between Monastrell and other varieties may be a useful tool for alleviating the effect caused by earlier grape ripening and, in consequence, earlier harvest time on the quality of the grapes.
Total anthocyanins (mg/L) |
% Acylated |
% Non-Acylated |
% Di-OH |
% Tri-OH |
|
Harvest Time (HT) |
|||||
Mid-August |
2230.0 b |
35.3 a |
63.8 a |
6.6 a |
57.2 a |
End of August |
1637.2 a |
36.1 a |
62.9 a |
6.7 a |
56.2 a |
Beginning September |
1926.5 ab |
34.5 a |
63.2 a |
6.1 a |
57.3 a |
End of September |
1498.1 a |
33.6 a |
64.3 a |
4.9 a |
58.6 a |
Year (Y) |
|||||
2015 |
1538.6 a |
35.6 a |
62.9 a |
6.5 a |
56.3 a |
2016 |
2107.3 b |
34.2 a |
64.1 a |
5.6 a |
58.3 a |
Interactions |
|||||
HT x Y |
ns |
ns |
ns |
ns |
ns |
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