Keywords: Altitudinal range; Botanical composition; Crop residues; Dry matter; Feed balance;
Grazing land types; Natural pasture;
Feed problem is one of the major factors that hinders the development and expansion of livestock production in Ethiopia [3, 37]. Natural grazing land is the predominant feed sources for livestock in lowland and crop residues represent a large proportion of feed resource in mixed crop livestock system of Ethiopia [28]. However, the availability and quality of these feed sources cannot satisfy effective livestock production even for maintenance because of low digestibility and low intake of livestock for the whole year round, as a result body weight gains obtained during the wet season may be lost totally or partially in the dry season [5, 29]. Fallow lands, grazing of roadsides and crop margins are also used for animal feed resources in some part of Ethiopia [37].
The Ethiopian highland regions account the largest share of livestock population [63.2%] and the lowland account the lowest [36.7%] [39]. In the country, about 61.5, 27.7, 6.4, 0.8, 0.08 and 3.5% [energy value] contributed natural pasture, crop residues, hay, by products, improved fodder and others, respectively [26]. The seasonal fluctuation of availability of natural pasture is a common phenomenon which resulted in a serious feed shortage which affects production and productivity of animals [35, 30]. the most critical periods are from February to May, when all feed resources are virtually depleted and conservation of crop residues is inadequate in highland of Ethiopia [13, 30]. In highland areas, land is increasingly cultivated for crop production to satisfy the increasing demands of human food. This is the evident in the mixed crop-livestock farming systems of the highland areas crop residues were the main livestock resource [3].
Gozamen district is one of the 18 districts of Eastern Gojam Administrative Zone of Amhara National Regional State. Livestock production in the district is an integral part of the land use system. According to the reports of animal feed resources in study areas are mainly based on grazed native pastures and crop residues, which are low in production and quality, resulting in poor animal performance[24]. Livestock feed supply from these natural pasture is characterized by seasonal fluctuation because of the distinct seasonal variation in relation to the annual rainfall pattern. Therefore, the district is known for its critical feed shortage especially in the dry season.
Knowledge about the current grazing land resources is absolutely necessary to maintain the optimum productivity and sustainable use of the grazing land resources for the future. There is insufficient information regarding the feed resources in the study area. It is important to gather data on the grazing land conditions, and the constraining circumstances in the area. Therefore, this thesis research was designed with the general objective of assessing available feed and grazing land resources to generate base-line information and it encompasses the following specific objectives as to assess the grazing land condition based on herbaceous and woody species. and to investigate the floristic composition and biomass yields of herbaceous species.
Agriculture is the mainstay of farmers in the district which is characterized by mixed crop livestock production systems. According to the most important crops grown in the district are cereals like wheat, teff, maize, barley and oats [24]. Pulse crops such as horse beans and chickpeas are produced. Oil seed crops [linseed and Niger seed], Vegetables [onion, garlic, potato, tomato, pepper and carrot] and fruits [banana, mango, papaya, orange and lemon] are also produced in the district. The district has a livestock population of 155287 cattle, 97263 sheep, 8577 goats, 25473 equines, 56,920 poultry and 10,019 beehives [24]. the population of livestock indicated that the Barden of the livestock on the range land and it can compared the stocking rate and determining the carrying capacity.
The sampled data were collected by stratifying the district into three altitudes [high, mid, and low]. Within these altitudes, the grazing lands were further stratified into two sampling areas [2 communal and 2 enclosed grazing areas], using stratified random sampling technique. Enclosures are small areas of land protected by the different local farmers for use during feed shortage season, by allowing the animals to graze, and they are mainly found around crop lands. They are established by the farmers to have reserve forage for oxen and lactating animals. The communal grazing areas are those grazing sites, exposed for mismanagements; it is out of the control of the communities and freely allowing livestock to graze the land throughout the year.
In each of the grazing site, two sampling block of 100x100m2 was demarcated in a separate way to make it homogenous [to allow sampled area to have an equal chance to be sampled] and representative’s vegetation samples. This was further stratified into three sampling plots having equal size [5x5m2 each] for herbaceous species. Then, within 5x5 m, 0.5 m x 0.5 m quadrants were used for herbaceous species. But, 10x10 m2 transects were selected randomly from communal grazing lands for woody vegetation assessment.
For ease of data analyses a combination of three quadrats [composite] were used for herbaceous vegetation in each grazing site. A total of 24 composite sampling units [3 quadrats per composite] for herbaceous vegetation sampling units were used. In the assessment of herbaceous vegetation, 12 composite sampling units were used for communal grazing land and 12 composites for enclosed areas, 8 composites for each altitude. About 4 composites samples units were used for each grazing land and altitude. A total of 72 quadrats were used for herbaceous vegetation and 12 transects [4 from each altitude] were selected for woody vegetation. Sample collections conducted from September 19 to October 21 when all pasture plants are expected to be fully-grown, and to over 50% flowering stage [42].
Yijk = μ + Ai + Gj + Bk + AGij where, Yijk = the value of natural pasture condition assessment, μ = overall mean, Ai = effect of altitude, Gj = effect of grazing type, Bk = effect of block, AGij = interaction effect of altitude and grazing types.
Altitude |
N |
Age |
Males |
Females |
Total family size |
High |
40 |
47.28±1.1a |
3.05±0.1a |
3.08±0.2a |
6.13±0.26a |
Mid |
40 |
47.53±1.5a |
2.98±0.2a |
2.70±0.2a |
5.68±0.28a |
Low |
40 |
47.18±1.2a |
2.90±0.1a |
2.90±0.1a |
5.80±0.17a |
Overall |
120 |
47.33±0.2 |
2.98±0.1 |
2.89±0.1 |
5.87±0.14 |
Level of education |
Altitude |
Overall |
|||
High |
Mid |
Low |
mean |
||
Illiterate |
60.0 |
57.5 |
52.5 |
56.7 |
|
Basic Education |
12.5 |
- |
12.5 |
8.3 |
|
Primary School |
25.0 |
20.0 |
27.5 |
24.2 |
|
Secondary school |
- |
15.0 |
2.5 |
5.8 |
|
Preparatory |
- |
2.5 |
- |
0.8 |
|
Religious Education |
2.5 |
5.0 |
5.0 |
4.2 |
Scientific Name |
Local name |
Family name |
Altitude |
|||
High |
Mid |
Low |
Overall |
|||
Acacialahail |
Cheba |
- |
60.6 |
27.3 |
25.8 |
42.2 |
Carissa edulis |
Agam |
Apocynaceae |
3.1 |
33.6 |
4.3 |
12.7 |
Acacia abyssinia |
Grar |
Fabaceae |
5.6 |
0.9 |
17.2 |
8.0 |
Maytenus spp |
Atet |
Celastraceae |
16.3 |
14.6 |
7.5 |
13.8 |
Phooenix reclinata |
Zennbaba |
Arecaceae |
4.4 |
0.9 |
- |
2.2 |
Rosa abyssinica |
Kega |
- |
- |
10.0 |
3.6 |
3.3 |
Croten macrotachys |
Bisana |
Euphorbiaceae |
10.0 |
10.0 |
16.1 |
11.6 |
Solanum spp |
Embuay |
Solanaceae |
- |
1.8 |
2.2 |
1.1 |
Ficus sycomous |
Shola |
Moraceae |
- |
- |
1.1 |
0.3 |
Ficus alicitolia |
Warka |
Moraceae |
- |
- |
13.2 |
3.0 |
Cordial abyssinia |
Wanza |
Boraginaceae |
- |
- |
11.8 |
3.0 |
Based on biomass composition, Medicago polymorpha was the dominant species in both enclosed and communal grazing area of high and mid altitudes of the herbaceous community [Appendix Table 17]. This was in line with the study of in Northwestern Ethiopian highlands [45]. A body of literature suggested that the most dominant species contributed the highest amount of biomass in the fertilized community [18]. The dominance of Medicago polymorpha in high and mid altitudes may be due to high precipitation and low temperature in high and mid altitudes than in low altitude, and due to soil type and fast establishment characters of legume species in the study areas.
The dominance of woody species was varied among altitudes of the study district. The largest proportion of woody vegetation was contributed by Acacialahail [60.6 and 25.8% in high and low altitudes, respectively], while in mid altitudes, Carissa edulis and Acacialahail contributed about 33.6 and 27.3%, respectively [Table 19]. In high altitude, Carissa edulis, Acacia Abyssinia, Maytenus spp, Phooenix reclinata and Croten macrotachys are the common species, but Rosa abyssinica, Maytenus spp and Croten macrotachys common species in mid altitude. In low altitude, Carissa edulis, Acacia Abyssinia, Maytenus spp, Croten macrotachys, Rosa abyssinica, Ficus alicitolia and Cordial Abyssinia common species. Many of the woody species identified in the study districts are important for livestock production.
The species identified in communal grazing land include Euphorbia species, Albizia gummifera, Croten macrota-chys, Ficus alicitolia, Cordial Abyssinia, Milletia ferrruginea, Phooenix reclinata, Syzygium guineese, Rumex nervosus, Solanum spp., Dodonea viscose, Ficus sycomous, Rosa abyssinica, Acacialahail, Acacia atbalia, Acacia Abyssinia, Maytenus spp., and Carissa edulis, keret and chibeha.
In the study area, as altitude increases, the mean density of woody species increases [Table 20]. this was in line with the findings of [1, 43]. This may be related with better soil fertility and high moisture in high altitude. The overall mean density of shrubs in the district was greater than the mean density [2622 ha-1] of shrubs in semi-arid dry lands of Borana and the density of woody plants species [7950 ha-1] in the natural forest [22, 44]. This difference might be due to livestock grazing pressure, soil type, human pressure and altitudes. [Table 4]
Height (m) |
Altitude |
|||
High |
Mid |
Low |
Overall |
|
0.0 - 1.0 |
13.64 |
29.38 |
6.45 |
18.73 |
1.0 - 2.0 |
38.18 |
60.0 |
12.5 |
41.32 |
2.0 - 3.0 |
29.09 |
10.63 |
23.66 |
19.56 |
3.0 - 4.0 |
17.27 |
- |
7.53 |
7.16 |
> 4.0 |
1.82 |
- |
49.46 |
13.22 |
Total height Woody plant density ha-1 |
2.06±0.09b |
1.38±0.04c |
4.40±0.28a |
2.39±0.102b |
15450±902.6a |
12000±902.6b |
7350±902.6c |
11600± 271.6 |
In communal grazing areas, basal cover and grass species composition were significantly lower [P< 0.01] in low altitude category than those found in high and mid altitude ranges. The possible reason for the lower basal cover and grass species composition in the low altitude could be associated with low precipitation and high temperature in the lower altitude than in the higher altitude. The species composition was no significant difference [P>0.05] for the enclosure sites found in high and mid altitude categories, and this could be associated with level of grazing pressure. This indicated that species composition alone is not a good indicator of the condition of grazing land and this observation concurred with the finding of [1].
In the communal grazing area, woody plant density was significantly lower [P< 0.01] in low altitude than in high and mid altitudes, and this was in line with the study of [1]. The possible reason for the lower plant density in the lower altitude could be associated with low precipitation in the lower altitude than in the higher altitude. The mean woody vegetation density per hectare was higher [P< 0.05] in communal grazing areas of high altitude categories than those found in the mid and low altitude zones. This might be lower atmospheric temperature and high precipitation in high altitude than in mid and low altitudes. The higher woody vegetation density the better the grazing lands for grazing animals like cattle and sheep [1]. In the study areas, the woody vegetation density for enclosure areas was not recorded because of the absence of private woody vegetation used for animal feed sources.
The overall average value of the basal cover for the communal grazing areas was greater than 3.66 in Hamer district [1]. The reasons for the higher basal cover in study area may be associated with the soil type, climate condition, and altitude [550-1550 m.a.s.l in Hamer district]. [Table 5]
Altitude |
||||
Enclosed areas |
High |
Mid |
Low |
Overall |
Basal cover |
28.17±2.30a |
26.17±2.30a |
15.60±2.30b |
23.31±2.3 |
Species composition |
6.67±0.41a |
5.92±0.41a |
4.00±0.41b |
5.53±0.23 |
Grass species composition |
4.12± 0.28a |
3.50 ± 0.28a |
2.25±0.28b |
3.31±0.16 |
Communal grazing |
|
|||
Basal cover |
21.34±2.4a |
17.67±2.4a |
9.71±2.4b |
16.25±2.4 |
Species composition |
4.67±0.29a |
4.50±0.29a |
4.00±0.29a |
4.39±0.12 |
Grass species composition |
3.17±0.26a |
2.92 ±0.26a |
2.25±0.26b |
2.78±0.15 |
Woody density |
15450.0±902a |
12000.0±902b |
7350.0±902c |
7353±902.2 |
In mid altitude, the enclousres had a significantly higher [P< 0.01] value of species composition, basal cover and grass species composition than that of communal grazing areas [Table 22]. The higher species composition, basal cover and grass species composition in the enclosed grazing areas could be attributed to the better management and less opportunity for the vegetation to access and disturb the enclosed sites, in contrast to grazing pressure exerted on communal grazing area is more vulnerable for livestock grazing and trampling in the communal grazing areas. The result of this study supports the finding of Teshome [2006]. This implies that decline in the grazing land condition in communal grazing areas have a direct negative influence on the livestock production. The similarity in species composition and grass species composition in the enclosures and communal grazing areas located in high and low altitude may be associated with the less grazing pressure in communal grazing areas [Table 6].
Altitudes |
Type of grazing |
||
High |
Enclosed grazing |
Communal grazing |
Overall mean |
Basal cover |
28.2±1.50a |
21.3 ±1.50b |
24.80±1.5 |
Species composition |
5.92±0.41a |
4.67±0.41a |
5.29±0.28 |
Grass species composition |
3.50± 0.37a |
3.17 ± 0.37a |
3.33± 0.26 |
Mid |
|
||
Basal cover |
26.17±3.27a |
17.67±3.27b |
21.92±3.27 |
Species composition |
6.50 ± 0.26a |
4.50± 0.26b |
5.58±0.18 |
Grass species composition |
4.17± 0.22a |
2.92 ± 0.22b |
3.54± 0.15 |
Low |
|||
Basal cover |
15.58±1.42a |
9.71±1.42b |
12.65±1.42 |
Species composition |
4.00 ± 0.29a |
3.83±0.28a |
3.92±0.21 |
Grass species composition |
2.25± 0.12a |
2.25± 0.12a |
2.25± 0.08 |
In enclosed areas, the overall biomass of herbaceous vegetation significantly [P< 0.05] increasing with altitude increasing [from low to high altitudes]. This agreed with the findings of [41, 46]. Possible reason for this may be due to lower altitude may have higher atmospheric temperature and low precipitation which affect plant growth. The biomass yield of grass and legume, in enclosed areas of the high altitude categories was significantly lower [P< 0.05] than that of the grass and legume biomass in the high and low altitude categories and such difference might be attributed to the variations in altitude. But, the grass and legume biomass were no significant [P>0.05] differences between the high and mid altitudes. The similarity of this measured biomass could be due to influence of management of enclosed areas undertaken by the farmers.In enclosed grazing area, grasses species contributed 52% of the dry matter, while legumes 39.5%. This was different from the result of 86 and 2% of grasses and legumes species represented dry matter composition around Ziway of enclosure area [50]. This difference might be due to soil type and altitudes [1500-1700 masl in Ziway]. [Table 7]
The overall biomass yield of grasses, legumes and others species were 1.02, 0.8 and 0.06 t ha-1 respectively [Table 24]. These values were different from the results of 3.4, 0.06 and 0.3 t ha-1 of grasses, legumes and others were, respectively on natural pastureland around Ziway [50]. The possible reason for variation of this could be associated with climate change, grazing pressure and soil type which affect the plant growth. [Table 8]
Altitudes |
Total grasses |
Legumes |
Others |
Overall biomass |
High |
2.59±0.31a |
2.42±0.38a |
0.97±0.59a |
6.03±0.85a |
Mid |
2.40±0.53a |
2.31±0.28a |
0.08±0.01b |
4.38±0.46b |
Low |
1.68±0.22b |
0.34±0.06b |
0.05±0.02b |
2.10±0.20c ±0.20c |
Overall |
2.22±0.53 |
1.69 ±1.03 |
0.37±0.54 |
4.17±1.76 |
DM composition (%) |
52.0 |
39.5 |
8.6 |
100.0 |
Herbaceous |
Altitude |
Overall mean |
||
High |
Mid |
Low |
||
Grasses |
1.41±0.08a |
0.96±0.08b |
0.70±0.080b |
1.02±0.34 |
Legumes |
1.30±0.22a |
0.78±0.16b |
0.31±0.130c |
0.80±0.45 |
Others |
0.11±0.02a |
0.04±0.03b |
0.03±0.004b |
0.06 ±0.04 |
Total biomass |
2.82±0.41a |
1.78±0.11b |
1.03±0.080c |
1.87±0.80 |
Types of grazing |
Overall mean |
|||
Altitude |
Family Biomass |
Enclosed area |
Communal grazing |
|
High |
Grasses |
2.60±0.31a |
1.41±0.27b |
2.00±0.27 |
Legumes |
2.42±0.38a |
1.30±0.22b |
1.86±0.67 |
|
Others |
0.97±0.59a |
0.11±0.2a |
0.54±0.60 |
|
Total biomass |
6.03±0.85a |
2.82±0.41b |
4.43±1.83 |
|
Total grasses |
2.40±0.53a |
0.98±0.12b |
1.68±0.85 |
|
mid |
Legumes |
2.31±0.28a |
0.78±0.16b |
1.55±0.85 |
Others |
0.08±0.01a |
0.04±0.03a |
0.06±0.03 |
|
Total biomass |
4.38±0.46a |
1.78±0.12b |
3.08±1.42 |
|
Total grasses |
1.68±0.22a |
0.69±0.08b |
1.20±0.55 |
|
low |
Legumes |
0.34±0.06a |
0.31±0.13a |
0.32±0.09 |
Others |
0.054±02a |
0.027±004a |
0.04±0.02 |
|
Total biomass |
2.10±0.08a |
1.03±0.19b |
1.56±0.58 |
The overall average age and family size of the respondents were 47.3 years and 5.87, respectively. The highest percentages of respondents in all altitudes were illiterates. The largest and lowest proportion of land sizes were allocated to crop production and grazing lands, respectively. The cattle species contributed the largest herd sizes than other animals. The average number of livestock species significantly varied among altitudes.
In all altitudes, natural pasture, crop residues and crop stubbles were the major livestock feed resources. According to the response of respondents, natural pasture was the first and second feed sources during wet and dry seasons, respectively in all altitudes, while crop residue was first and second as source of feed during dry and wet season respectively. In terms of dry matter, crop residues contributed the highest dry matter basis of the total feed sources.
The use of improved forage as animal feed sources was not common in all altitudes due to shortage of land and lack of awareness about it. The use of agro-industrial by-products as animal feed sources in the study area was also not common due to high cost and no available in the area. The conservation of feed resources in the form of hay in mid land was higher than the other two altitudes. None of the respondents used silage for animal feed source in all altitudes due to the reason of lack of knowledge how to make it. The overall respondents fed physically treated feeds to their livestock was low [26.7%] and none of respondents applied chemical feed treatment methods. The total estimated available feed supply to maintain the livestock in the study area was satisfied only 79.5%. A total of 21 herbaceous species were identified in the study area, of which 57, 24 and 19% were grasses, legumes and others, respectively. On biomass composition, Medicago polymorpha was the dominant species in both enclosed and communal area of high and mid altitudes, while Eleusine floccifolia was the dominant species in both enclosed and communal area of low altitude. A total of 22 woody plant species were identified of which 5 were found in private land and the remaining was in communal grazing lands. Altitude has effect on basal cover, total species and grass species composition, biomass of herbaceous vegetation and density of woody vegetation. In both enclosed and communal grazing areas, the basal cover and grass species composition were significantly lower [p< 0.01] in low altitude than in other two altitudes. Grazing also has effect on basal cover, species composition, grass species composition and biomass at different altitudes. In all altitudes, the basal cover was significantly higher [P< 0.01] in enclosed than in the communal area. In mid altitude, grass species composition and species composition were significantly higher [P< 0.05] in enclosed than in communal grazing areas. There were a significant [P< 0.01] interaction of altitude and grazing types on biomass and species composition. There were positively correlation [P< 0.01] of species composition, grass species composition, basal cover and biomass with each other. The average dry matter yield of total grasses, legumes and total biomass in enclosed areas were significantly lower [p< 0.05] in low altitude than in high and mid altitudes. The average dry matter yield of total biomass, grasses and legumes in communal grazing areas were significantly higher [p< 0.05] in high altitude compared to mid and low altitudes. The average dry matter yield of grasses and total biomass were higher [P< 0.05] in enclosed area than communal grazing areas in all altitudes. The average dry matter yield of legumes were higher [P< 0.05] in enclosed area than communal grazing areas in high and mid altitudes.
• The bulk amount of crop-residues accounted about 66.7% of the total annual feed supply but they have low nutritive value or quality. Thus, the local farmers should be encouraged and advised by any development organizations involved in livestock development on the physical [chopping and water soaking] and urea treatment methods.
• The use of improved forage as animal feed sources was not common in the study area due to awareness of farmers about improved forages. Thus, provisions of extension services to farmers about the importance sown forage and forage developing strategies should be required.
• The total annual dry matter does not meet the total livestock requirement per annum in district. Farmers should create awareness on how to balance the annual dry matter feed requirement of livestock and locally available feed supply. This may be done by reducing herd size preferably replacing the less productive animals with fewer more productive animals, proper store of crop residues, conserving feed [hay] and cultivating improved forage.
• The average dry matter yield of herbaceous species in enclosed grazing areas was higher than in communal grazing areas in all altitudes. Thus, to increase the productivity of communal grazing land which is found in large coverage in alt itudes efficient grazing land management systems should be considered. Among these adjusting stocking rate, use of rotational grazing, over sowing of leguminous feed species.
• Detailed monitoring research is imperative to further investigate the effect of altitudes and grazing on chemical composition of herbaceous species.
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