2Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université Cheikh Anta DIOP de Dakar BP 5005 Fann, Sénégal
3Institut de Technologie Alimentaire (ITA) Route des pères Maristes, Hann-Dakar-Senegal – BP: 2765
Keywords: Cowpea; anti nutritional factors; soaking; sprouting; fermentation; extrusions; steam pre – cooking
However, the presence of ANFs may negatively affect the acceptability of cowpea based food products, their proteins bioavailability, and minerals as well as in other legumes. According to, ANFs are found in almost all foods. However, several technological processes are used in order to reduce these ANFs and to provide consumers nutritional rich food products [9]. Moreover, these technological processes need to be optimized for more effectiveness. The purpose of this review paper covers the current and modern practices on key aspects of these technologies in reducing or eliminating ANFs in legumes. This state of art cross over above technologies could be also applied to Vigna unguiculata.
To avoid these negative consequences of phytates, it is therefore important to put in place means to reduce their toxicity. To know the degree of toxicity or inhibition of phytates in a food, a determination of phytate / mineral molar ratios would be a good way.
The tannins are subdivided into two categories according to their structure: hydrolysable and non-hydrolyzable tannins.
In cowpea, the tannin content can reach up to 260 mg / 100gMS depending on the variety and color of the seeds [45]. This content is confirmed by the work of who found 270 mg / 100g, 680mg / 100g, 110mg / 100g and 820mg / 100g tannins in 4 cowpea varieties respectively [14]. In view of these results, it is clear that tannins are significantly present in cowpea seeds. They can therefore prevent the availability of certain nutritional elements such as minerals and proteins, and this, thanks to their ability to form complexes with these elements thus blocking their absorption.
Antinutritional molecules therefore hinder efforts to combat malnutrition, micronutrient deficiency and food security. It is therefore necessary to propagate abatement techniques while avoiding too much nutrient loss.
Indeed, there are several methods of treating seeds including soaking, germination, fermentation, extrusion, pre-cooking with steam, etc.
Seeds Types |
Soaking Solution Types |
Ratio (Weigh : Volume) |
Soaking Times / Soaking Temperature |
Reduction Rate |
References |
Chick Pea |
Solution (water + 0,01N NaOH + 0,01N HCl) |
1 : 5 |
-----/------- |
-----/------ |
(Haileslassie and al., 2016) [49] |
Beans |
Tap water |
1 : 5 |
12 hours /---- |
13.04 %, 20.82 % for tannins |
(Khandelwal and al., 2010) [50] |
Cereal Grains (Millet, Sorghum And Maize, Rice) |
Mineral water (Evian) |
1 : 3 |
24 hours/ 30°C |
28 % of phytates |
(Lestienne and al., 2005) [24] |
Bean |
Distilled water |
1 : 3 |
----/---- |
------/------- |
(Piecyk and al., 2012) [51] |
Red Bean |
water (pH= 6,9) 0,05% Na2CO3, PH= 8,2 solution |
1 : 3 |
12hours/ ambient |
40, 41 and 45 % of alpha-galactoside |
(Shimelis and Rakshit, 2007) [52] |
Cowpea |
Mineral water (Evian) |
1 : 5 |
24 hours/ 30°C |
Increase (-11.62%) |
(Lestienne and al., 2005) [24] |
Cowpea |
Distilled water Solution of 0,02% Na2CO3; pH= 8,3) |
1 : 10 |
2 , 4 et 6 hours/------- |
10.81%, 19.60% for phytates and 22.22%, 32.92% for tannins |
(Avanza and al., 2013) [14] |
Addition of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) to the soaking water can lead to significant reductions in ANF levels. Indeed, a 12 hours soaking with addition of sodium bicarbonate resulted in reductions of 41, 45 and 40% in total alpha-galactoside (stachyose and raffinose) in three varieties of red beans respectively [52].
These results show that there is a difference in the contents of reduced ANFs according to the soaking solution used. The addition of sodium bicarbonate caused a greater reduction compared to soaking with simple water. Thus, the sharp reduction observed during the soaking with addition of sodium bicarbonate is due to the tenderness of the seeds facilitating the rapid dissolution of these factors in the soaking solution. These studies show that soaking is a good way to reduce ANFs in legumes such as cowpea. Thus, the loss of these ANFs during soaking of the seeds can be explained differently.
Regarding tannins, classified as polyphenols, are located at the level of the teguments and their loss during soaking of the seeds is attributed to its effect of creating an ionic environment [14, 53]. The modified ionic environment could in turn modify the permeability of the integument, thus allowing larger and faster losses.
In addition, the decrease in phytic acid during this soaking process is attributed to its phytase catalyzed hydrolysis [14]. Thus this hydrolysis of the phytate molecule causes a release of minerals that become available for intestinal absorption.
However, it is important to note that during soaking, there is also a loss of certain nutritional elements such as minerals. It has shown by that cowpea seeds containing 6.60 mg / 100 g DM in iron are found with a content of 5.68 mg / 100 g MS or 13.94% loss after a 24h soak [24]. According to, the minerals (potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron) whose losses have been observed in the seeds are found in the soaking water [33].
It is therefore important to recommend dipping food as a method of ANF control while controlling the duration of the operation to avoid large losses of minerals and water-soluble vitamins.
Germination is often used to improve the concentration and bioavailability of nutrients in foods [55, 56, 57].
It improves the nutritional value of cereals and legumes by increasing protein digestibility, essential amino acid content and vitamins, while decreasing some anti nutritional factors [58]. Thus, during germination, important changes occur between the seeds and the culture medium. Changes include among others to the secretion of ions, oxygen and enzymes and a wide range of primary and secondary carbon-containing metabolites [59].
Germination can cause phytate hydrolysis and decrease their inhibitory effects on mineral uptake. It lasts a few days and can be initiated by a few simple steps namely rinsing the seeds to remove all the impurities, soaking the seeds in the water. Table 2 gives a summary of the conditions used for germination for different types of cereals and pulses. Germination results in 37 to 81% reduction of phytate in different types of cereals and legumes [60].
Seeds Types |
Ratio Seed : Soaking Solution(W/V) |
Times /Temperatures/ Nature Of Soaking Solutions |
Duration Of Germination |
Reduction Rate |
References |
Millet, Sorghum |
----- |
24 hours/25°C/----- |
7 days |
------ |
(Ochanda and al., 2010) [61] |
Amaranth |
----- |
Night/----/ Distilled water + 0,2% formaldehyde solution |
72 hours |
34,66% of tannins |
(Olawoye and Gbadamosi, 2017) [62] |
Beans (Green Beans / Mung Beans) |
1 :5 |
12hours/ambiente/ Tap water |
24 hours |
43% of tannins |
(Khandelwal and al., 2010) [50] |
Red Beans |
1 : 5 |
12 hours/25°C/ Distilled water + 0.01% (w/v) d’eau de javel |
4 days |
76% of tannin ; 92% of phytic acid |
(Shimelis and Rakshit, 2007) [52] |
Moreover, the efficiency of the germination is maximum if the amount of enzymes capable to hydrolyze phytates is high and if the germination conditions are favorable to the activity of its enzymes. Germination also causes large reductions in phenolic compound contents ranging from 9 to 56% and particularly in tannins from 33 to 72% [6].
In a study of the evolution of anti nutritional factors of two varieties of cowpea seed, “voanembafotsy” and “voanemba mena”, it was found that after 48 to 96 hours of germination, the phytate content cowpea is reduced by 48.8 and 81.8% respectively [47].
According to, after 96 hours of germination, the phytate content of the mara variety decreased by 41.5% under laboratory conditions [48]. Other studies have shown that the raffinose content decreases steadily with increasing germination time.
For a period of 5 days of germination, the raffinose content decreased steadily by 67% [63]. While found raffinose reductions of 38 and 62% for 24 h and 48 h germination respectively [52]. For the same germination times, the stachyose content was reduced by 53 and 92%, respectively [52]. This decrease in phytates and alpha-galactoside is due to the presence of specific enzymes, phytase and alpha-galactosidases. In fact, the different phytases present in the seeds act during seed germination [64]. A study comparing the effect of pressure cooking, dipping and of germination showed that the greatest reduction in polyphenol and tannin content was achieved by germination, followed by dipping and pressure cooking [50]. The different results observed during germination confirm its effectiveness in reducing FANs. Thus, germination times varying between 48 and 72 h would be sufficient to significantly reduce the FAN content in legume seeds.
This is a treatment technique that starts with the hydrolysis of starch by the action of enzymes. In general, lactic acid bacteria are essential in fermentations for the production of metabolites, degradation of cyanogenic glucosides, production of enzymes, probiotic properties and the production of many other molecules [66]. The reduction of FAN levels during fermentation is attributed to the activity of fermentative microorganisms [67]. Fermentation leads to a decrease in alpha - galactosides and phytates and has a positive effect on the availability of iron and other minerals [68, 69]. It promotes optimal pH for the enzymatic degradation of phytates [69].
It reduces the levels of some anti nutritional factors, particularly phytates and α-galactosides, in cereals and legumes, for millet, it reduces phytate and raffinose content by 75% and 83% respectively [70, 71]. Fermentation is therefore a microbial and enzymatic method of treatment which not only extends the shelf life of foods but leads to a significant reduction in FAN levels. This reduction role is indeed made possible by the lowering of the pH. Compared with soaking, the reduction rate obtained by fermentation is more significant; this leads to the conclusion that the use of fermentation for the treatment of seeds legumes and particularly cowpea would be a good asset of the nutritional point.
However, the extrusion temperature and the moisture of the product to be extruded play an important role in the reduction of ANFs. Thus, a 55.83% reduction in phytic acid was observed during extrusion cooking of rice bran at a temperature of 140 ° C and 20% humidity [75]. A lower moisture content during extrusion results in a lower degradation of the phytic acid of grain brans. According to at 115 °C the average values of phytic acid in extruded rice brans were 19.92, 18.63 and 17.35 mg / g at 14, 17 and 20% humidity respectively [75]. The observation of these results makes it possible to remember that the extrusion temperature is a factor that can significantly influence the ANFs content compared to the moisture of the extruded product. Thus, 140°C temperature and 20% humidity would be the most appropriate parameter pair for reducing ANFs in a food product. In addition, the technique of extrusion cooking compared to the other processes studied above would be preferable. Indeed, it makes available minerals without destroying them while other processes such as soaking and germination cause a diffusion of these minerals in the soaking water.
In fact, steam pre – cooking resulted in a 52% reduction in phytate content of beans, 56.5% in sunflower and 47.9% in rice grains [77]. In the production of “moin-moin” (steamed cowpea paste containing seasonings), there was a decrease in phytate contents between 7.8-14.0% and tannins of 19.6-24. 7% [78]. This decrease in phytate during heat treatment would be the result of their degradation by heat. This is due to the thermolabile nature of phytic acid [79].
For tannins, they are localized at the level of grain teguments and are destroyed during the heat treatment process [80]. In this thermal process, the temperature and the treatment time are good optimization parameters. Reductions in average phytic acid content from 38.14 mg / g for untreated cereal brans at 18.72 mg / g for cereal brans subjected to steam pre-cooking at 100 ° C for 25 minutes, 18.08 mg / g at 110 ° C for 25 minutes and 18.74 mg / g at 115 ° C for 25 minutes were recorded [81]. These recordings showed that the maximum reduction (52.60%) of the phytic acid content was obtained at 110 ° C for 25 minutes.
Thus, in the case of cowpea, similar losses in ANFs could be considered because of the heat labile nature of some of them or their location in teguments whose heat facilitates their destruction. A combination of this treatment technique with the other processes could give better reductions in ANFs while retaining nutritional and organoleptic qualities of the final product.
- FAO. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), Statistical Database. 2014.
- ANSD. National Agency of Statistics and Demography). Monthly Bulletin of Economic Statistics. Dakar. 2017.
- ANSD. (National Agency of Statistics and Demography). Monthly Bulletin of Economic Statistics. Dakar. 2018; 109 p.
- Cisse, N., Hall, A., 2001. Traditional cowpea culture in Senegal, case study. ISRA / CNRA BP 53, 92521-90124.
- Rangel A, Saraiva K, Schwengber P, Narciso MS, Domont GB, Ferreira ST, et al. Biological evaluation of a protein isolate from cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). Food Chemistry 87. 2004; 491-499.
- Lestienne, I., 2004. Contribution to the study of the bioavailability of iron and zinc in millet grain and conditions for improvement in complementary foods. Montpellier: University Montpellier II.
- Amjad Iqbal, Iqtidar A. Khalil, Nadia Ateeq, Muhammad Sayyar Khan. Nutritional quality of important food vegetables. Food chemistry.2005; 97(2006): 331-335. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.011
- Denise, BMA, Salome, YSE, Clovis, KNdB, et al. Agronomic and Biochemical Quality Study Some Cowpea Varieties (Vigna Unguiculata (L) Walp (Fabaceae).Ivory Coast European Scientific Journal.2016;
- Aukwa, C. A.; Igwenyi, I. O.; Ogah, O.; Oor, C. E.; Ugwu, O. O. Variations in seed phytic and oxalic acid contents among Nigerian cowpea accessions and their relationship with grain yield. Continental Journal of Food Science and Technology.2011; 5(2):40-48.
- KO Soetan. Pharmacological and other beneficial effects of antinutritional factors in plants. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2008; 7 (25): 4713-4721.
- Ross M. Welch and Robin D. Graham. 2004. Breeding for micronutrients in staple wheat and wheat fractions. Cereal Chemistry 47; 2004: 288-296.
- Burel, C., Médale, F., 2014. What about the use of plant-based proteins in aquaculture? OCL 21, D406.
- Habtamu Fekadu Gemede and Negussie Ratta. Antinutritional factors in plant foods: potential health benefits and adverse effects. International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences.2014;3(4):284-289.
- M.Avanza , B.Aceved o, M.Chave s, M.Añón. Nutritional and anti-nutritional components of four cowpea varieties under thermal treatments: Principal component analysis. LWT-Food Science and Technology. 2013;51(1):148-157.Doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2012.09.010
- Bolade MK. Individualistic impact of unit operations of production, at household level, on some antinutritional factors in selected cowpea-based food products. Food Sci Nutr. 2015;4(3):441-55.Doi: 10.1002/fsn3.306
- Andrianirina J. Nutritional and anti-nutritional characterization of legume seeds consumed in Androy. (DEA thesis in Biochemistry Applied to Food Science and Nutrition). Faculty of Science: Antananarivo University.2015.
- R. Sinha and A. Kawatra. Effect of processing on phytic acid and polyphenol contents of cowpeas [Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp]. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 2003;58(3):1–8.
- Iyayi, E. A., Kluth, H., Rodehutscord, M. Effect of heat treatment on antinutrients and precaecal crude protein digestibility in broilers of four tropical crop seeds. International journal of food science & technology. 2008;43(4):610-616.
- Magnolia Ariza-Nieto, Matthew W. Blair, Ross M. Welch, Raymond P. Glahn. Screening of iron bioavailability patterns in eight bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes using the Caco-2 cell in vitro model. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007;55(19):7950-7956. DOI: 10.1021/jf070023y
- Santosh Khokhar and Richard K. Owusu Apenten. Antinutritional factors in food vegetables and effects of processing. The role of food, agriculture, forestry and fisheries in human nutrition.2004;
- B Feil. Phytic acid. Journal of New Seeds.2001; 3(3):1-35.Doi:10.1300/J153v03n03_01
- J. Mellef, A. Dridi, L. El bahri, O. Belhaj. Review of the effects of the addition of microbial phytase on the bioavailability of phosphorus and the performance of poultry. Revue de Médecine Veterinaire.2010; 161(7): 342-352.
- J. W. Erdman. Oilseed phytates: nutritional implications. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society.1979; 56(8):736-741.Doi.org/10.1007/BF02663052
- Isabelle Lestienne , Christèle Icard-Vernière , Claire Mouquet , Christian Picq , Serge Trèche . Effects of soaking whole grain and legume seeds on iron, zinc and phytate contents. Food Chemistry.2005;89(3):421-425. Doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.03.040
- Maduabuchi A. Chidiebere, Simeon, Nwanonenyi, Demian Njoku, Nkem B. Iroha, Emeka E. Oguzie, Ying Li. Experimental study on the inhibitive effect of phytic acid as a corrosion inhibitor for Q235 mild steel in 1 M HCl environment. World News of Natural Sciences. 2017;15(2017):1-19.
- Sonia Tamanna, Sayma Parvin, Sanjay Kumar, Alak K Dutta, Aysha Ferdoushi, M Ali Siddiquee, et al. Content of some minerals and their bioavailability in selected popular rice varieties from Bangladesh. Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci.2013;2(7): 35-43.
- Halterman JS, Kaczorowski JM, Aligne CA, Auinger P, Szilagyi PG. Iron deficiency and cognitive achievement among school-aged children and adolescents in the United States. Pediatrics.2001;107(6):1381-1386.
- S. Trèche. Complementary feeding of young children: proceedings of a WHO-ORSTOM inter-country workshop, from 20 to 24 November 1994, at Senghor University, Alexandria. Egypt. IRD Editions.1995.
- In Hwa Han and Byung‐Kee Baik. Oligosaccharide content and composition of vegetables and their reduction by soaking, cooking, ultrasound, and high hydrostatic pressure. Cereal Chemistry.2006;83(4): 428-433.Doi: 10.1094/CC-83-0428
- Cristina Martínez-Villaluenga ,Juana Frias, Concepción Vidal-Valverde, Alpha-Galactosides: Antinutritional Factors or Functional Ingredients? Critical reviews in Food Science and Nutrition.2008;48(4):301-316.
- Prakash M.Dey. Biochemistry of α-D-galactosidic linkages. Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry.1980; 37:283-372. DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2318(08)60023-2
- N.R.Reddy, M.D.Pierson, S.K.Sathe, D.K.Salunkhe. Chemical, nutritional and physiological aspects of dry carbohydrate beans-A review. Food Chem.1984;13(1):25-68.Doi:10.1016/0308-8146(84)90026-8
- F.B Souilah. Characterization of the behavior of micronutrients of interest and antinutritional compounds of chickpeas and cowpeas during processing processes, Montpellier Sup Agro, Institute of Hot Regions. University of Montpellier, University of Montpellier.2015.
- Troszynska, A., Honke, J., Waszczuk, K., and Kozlowska, H. Oligosaccharide content in vegetables and their changes during sterilization. In: Improving production and utilization of Grain. pp. 288. AEP (ed.), Proceedings of the 2nd European Conference on Grain Legumes, AEP, Paris.1995.
- Concepción Vidal‐Valverde, Juana Frias, Amelia Hernández, Pedro J Martín‐Alvarez, Isabel Sierra, Carmen Rodríguez, et al. Assessment of nutritional compounds and antinutritional factors in pea seeds (Pisum sativum). J. Sci. Food Agric.2003;83(4): 298-306. Doi: 10.1002/jsfa.1309
- Kozlowska, H ., Pilar, A., Dostalova, J., Frias, J., Lopez-Jurando, M., Pokorny, J., Urbano, G., Vidal-Valverde, C. and Zdunczyk, Z. Nutrition, In: Carbohydrate in Grain Legumes Seeds, Hedley C.L. (Ed.).2001.61-87, CAB International
- E Cristofaro, F Mottu, J.J Wuhrmann . Involvement of the family raffinose of oligosaccharides in flatulence. In: Sugars in Nutrition. Sipple, H. L., McNutt, K.W., Eds., London, Academic Press.1974;313-336.
- Yadahally N.Sreerama, adakkoot B.Sashikala, Vishwas M.Pratape, Vasudeva Singh. Nutrients and antinutrients in cowpea and horse gram flours in comparison to chickpea flour: Evaluation of their flour functionality. Food chemistry.2012; 131(2):462-468. Doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.09.008
- E. Bassène. Introduction to Research on Natural Substances Extraction-Analyzes-Biological Tests. Dakar University Press.2012.
- B.R Min, T.N Barry, G.T Attwood, W.C McNabb. The effect of condensed tannins on the nutrition and health of ruminants fed fresh temperate forages: a review. Animal Feed Science and Technology.2003;106(1-4): 3-19.Doi:10.1016/S0377-8401(03)00041-5
- N. Zimmer and R. Cordesse. Influence of tannins on the nutritional value of ruminant feeds. INRA Prod. Anim.1996;9 (3):167-179.
- Raymond V.Barbehenn and C.Peter Constabel. Tannins in plant–herbivore interactions. Phytochemistry.2011;72(13):1551–1565. Doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2011.01.040
- F.E. Sikwese and K.G. Duodu. Antioxidant effect of crude phenolic extract from sorghum bran in sunflower oil in the presence of ferric ions. Food Chemistry.2007;104(1): 324- 331. Doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.11.042
- K. Ba, E. Tine, J. Destain, N. Cisse, P. Thonart. Comparative study of phenolic compounds, the antioxidant power of different varieties of Senegalese sorghum and the amylolytic enzymes of their malt. Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2010;14(1):131-139.
- E. Marconi, G. Lombardi-Boccia, E. Carnovale. Nutritional evaluation of wild and cultivated species of cowpea. Cowpea genetic resources.1990;101-110.
- Ana Carolina Fernandes, Waleska Nishida, Rossana P. da Costa Proenca. Influence of soaking on the nutritional quality of common beans(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cooked with or without the soaking water: a review. International Journal of Food Science & Technology.2010;45: 2209-2218.
- Z. J Andriantsoa. Evolution of antinutritional factors of two varieties of cowpea (vignaunguiculata), voanemba mena and voanemba fotsy, during germination. (DEA dissertation of Biochemistry applied to the sciences of food and nutrition). Faculty of Science: Antananarivo University.2006.
- N. Razafitsalama. Evolution of antinutritional factors of seeds of two varieties of voandzou, mara and fotsy, during germination. DEA dissertation of Biochemistry applied to the sciences of food and nutrition). Faculty of Science: University of Antananarivo. 2006.
- Hiwot A. Haileslassie, Carol J. Henry, Robert T. Tyler. Impact of household food processing strategies on antinutrient (phytate, tannin, and polyphenol) contents of chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): a review. International Journal of Food Science & Technology.2016; 51(9):1947-1957. Doi:10.1111/ijfs.13166
- Shweta Khandelwal, A. Udipi Shobha, Padmini Ghugre. Polyphenols and tannins in Indian pulses: Effect of soaking, germination and pressure cooking. Food Research International. 2013;43(2):526-530.
- Małgorzatapiecyk, Rafałwołosiak, Beatadrużynska, Elwiraworobiej. Chemical composition and starch digestibility in flours from Polish processed legume seeds. Food Chemistry.2012;135(3):1057-1064. Doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.05.051
- Emire AdmassuShimelis and Sudip KumarRakshit. Effect of processing on antinutrients and in vitro protein digestibility of kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties grown in East Africa. Food chemistry.2007;103(1): 161-172. Doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.08.005
- Magnolia Ariza-Nieto, Matthew W. Blair, Ross M. Welch, Raymond P. Glahn. Screening of iron bioavailability patterns in eight bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes using the Caco-2 cell in vitro model. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007;55(19):7950-7956. DOI: 10.1021/jf070023y
- Loïc Rajjou, Manuel Duval, Karine Gallardo, Julie Catusse, Julia Bally, Claudette Job, et al. Seed germination and vigor. Annual review of plant biology.2012; 63:507-533. Doi:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042811-105550
- Samia M. Abdelrahaman, Hagir B. Elmaki, Wisal H. Idris, Amro B. Hassan, Elfadil E. Babiker. Antinutritional factors et aqueouschloride acid extractabilité des minerals en pearl millet cultivars as affected by germination. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr.2007;58(1):6-17. Doi:10.1080/09637480601093236
- Mashair A. Sulieman, Mashair A. Sulieman, Mohamed M. Eltayeb, Elfadil E. Babiker, Abdelmoneim I. Mustafa, Abullahi H. El Tinay. Effect of sprouting on chemical composition and amino acid content of Sudanese lentil cultivars. J. Appl. Sci.2008;8(12):2337-2340.Doi: 10.3923/jas.2008.2337.2340
- Awad M. Sokrab, Isam A. Mohamed Ahmed, Elfadil E. Babiker. Effect of malting and fermentation on antinutrients, and total and extractable minerals of high and low phytate corn genotypes. Int. J. Food Sci. Techol.2012;47(5):1037-1043. Doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.02938.x
- Mandeep S Sibian, Dharmesh C Saxena, Charanjit S Riar. Effect of germination on chemical, functional and nutritional characteristics of wheat, brown rice and triticale: a comparative study. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture.2017;97(13):4643-4651. Doi:10.1002/jsfa.8336
- Bais HP, Weir TL, Perry LG, Gilroy S, Vivanco JM.The role of root exudates in rhizosphere interactions with plants and other organisms. Annu Rev Plant Biol. 2006;57:233-266.
- Luo Y, Xie W, Luo F.Effect of several germination treatments on phosphatases activities and degradation of phytate in faba bean (Vicia faba L.) and azuki bean (Vigna angularis L.). J Food Sci. 2012;77(10):C1023-C1029. Doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2012.02733.x
- Ochanda, Simon Oduor, Onyango Christine Akoth, Mwanjala Alfred Mwasaru, Ochieng Joy Kagwiria, Mathooko Francis Mutiso.Effects of malting and fermentation treatments on group B-vitamins of red sorghum, white sorghum and pearl millets in Kenya. J. Appl. Biosci.2010;34:2128-2134.
- Babatunde Olawoye and Saka Olasunkanmi Gbadamosi.Effect of different treatments in vitro protein digestibility, antinutrients, antioxidant properties and mineral composition of Amaranthus viridis seed. Cogent Food & Agriculture.2017;3(1): 1296402. DOI: 10.1080/23311932.2017.1296402
- I Onyesom, AT Enaholo, J Mordi. Effect of processing techniques on the contents of flatulence factors and emulsion properties of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management. 2005; 9(2):65-72. Doi:10.4314/jasem.v9i2.17293
- Frank Hatzack, Frank Hübel, Wei Zhang, Poul E. Hansen, Søren K. Rasmussen.Inositol phosphates from barley low-phytate grain mutants analysed by metal-dye detection HPLC and NMR. Biochemical Journal.2001;354(2): 473-480.Doi: 10.1042/bj3540473
- K. Y. Mehas and S. L. Rodgers. Fermentation and food. Food Science and You.1989. Macmillan/McGraw-Hill.
- Z. Kohajdová and J.Karovičová. Fermentation of cereals for specific purpose. Journal of Food and Nutrition Research.2007;46(2):51-57.
- T.N. Fagbemi and H.N. Atum. Physicochemical changes and microorganisms involved in the natural fermentation of Hura crepitans seeds to produce ogiri. Appl. Too much. Agric.2001;6:51-56.
- Marisela Granito, Juana Frias, Rosa Doblado, Marisa Guerra, Martine Champ, Concepción Vidal-Valverde. Nutritional improvement of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) by natural fermentation. European Food Research and Technology.2002;214(3):226-231. Doi:10.1007/s00217-001-0450-5
- VikasKumar, Amit K.Sinha, Harinder P.S.Makkar, KlausBecker. Dietary roles of phytate and phytase in human nutrition: A review. Food Chemistry.2010;120(4):945-959. Doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.11.052
- M.B. Dominique, M.G.J.F.A. Ouest, R.M.T. Serge, I. Madagascar. Conditions of use of a "very low cost cooker-extruder" for the manufacture of infant flours in Vietnam.2008;
- E.H.Tou, J.P.Guyot, C.Mouquet-Rivier, I.Rochette, E.Counil, A.S.Traoré, et al. Study through surveys and fermentation kinetics of the traditional processing of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) into ben-saalga, a fermented gruel from Burkina Faso.International Journal of Food Microbiology.2006;106(1):52-60. Doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2005.05.010
- A.A. Adebowale, S.T. Kareem, O.P. Sobukola, M.A. Adebisi, A.O. Obadina, O.E. Kajihausa, et al. Mineral and Antinutrient Content of High Quality Cassava-Tigernut Composite Flour Extruded Snack. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation.2017;41(5): e13125.Doi:10.1111/jfpp.13125
- Amagloh FK, Hardacre A, Mutukumira AN, Weber JL, Brough L, Coad J. Sweet potato-based complementary food for infants in low-income countries. Food Nutr Bull. 2012;33(1):3-10.
- R. Alonso, A. Aguirre, F. Marzo. Effects of extrusion and traditional processing methods in antinutrients and in vitro digestibility of protein and starch in faba and kidney beans. Food chemistry.2000;68(2):159-165. Doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(99)00169-7
- Satinder Kaur, Savita Sharma, Baljit Singh, B. N. Dar. Effect of extrusion variables (temperature, moisture) on the antinutrient components of cereal brans. Journal of Food Science and Technology.2015;52(3):1670-1676. Doi:10.1007/s13197-013-1118-4
- P. Houssou. Development of rice parboiling in Benin, African savannahs: changing spaces, actors facing new challenges. Proceedings of the colloquium, Garoua, Cameroon. Cirad-Prasac.2003.
- Mahesh S, Pavithra GJ, Parvathi MS, Rajashekara Reddy, Shankar A G. Effect of processing on phytic acidity and nutrient availability in food grains. International Journal of Agricultural Sciences.2015;5(5):771-777.
- Mathew K. Bolade. Individualistic impact of unit operations of production, at household level, on some antinutritional factors in selected cowpea-based food products. Food Sci Nutr. 2016; 4(3): 441–455. Doi: 10.1002/fsn3.306
- E.A. Udensi , F.C. Ekwu, J.N. Isinguzo. Antinutrient factors of vegetable cowpea (Sesquipedalis) seeds during thermal processing. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition.2007;6(2):194-197.Doi: 10.3923/pjn.2007.194.197
- J.M. Awika and K.G. Duodu. Bioactive polyphenols and peptides in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and their health promoting properties: A review. Journal of Functional Foods.2016;
- Kaur S, Sharma S, Dar BN, Singh B. Optimization of process for reducing antinutritional factors in edible cereal brans. Food Sci Technol Int. 2012;18(5):445-54. Doi: 10.1177/1082013211428236